Barriers to Multicultural Understanding:
Improving University Rehabilitation Counselor
Education Programs

Martin G. Brodwin, Ph.D.
Coordinator, Rehabilitation Counseling
California State University, Los Angeles

Abstract

At the present time, most graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling lack sufficient training in working with culturally diverse clients/consumers. This article recommends that these programs be enhanced to more effectively prepare rehabilitation counselors to work in a culturally diverse society.

To be or become an effective counselor, an individual needs awareness and understanding of the complexities of the multicultural society in which we live. In order to be effective, rehabilitation counseling programs must address the issues, needs and beliefs of culturally diverse populations. A major shortcoming of many Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs is the lack of sufficient multicultural emphasis. These graduate programs need to provide cultural awareness and sensitivity with regard to a variety of underrepresented groups, including African Americans, Hispanic Americans (Latinos), Asian Americans, and American Indians, as well as less recognized underrepresented groups, such as women, the elderly, persons with AIDS, and others. Each of these groups have culturally distinct characteristics, and are part of the larger culture. The trained rehabilitation counselor who is competent to work with the culturally diverse must be clinically effective, culturally aware, and sensitive to a variety of specialized and individualized needs, issues, and concerns.

In training rehabilitation counselors to work effectively with culturally diverse consumers with disabilities, three areas are noteworthy:

• knowledge/information
• beliefs/abilities
• skills/abilities

To be able to respond appropriately, the counselor needs information and knowledge about diverse populations to effectively respond to culturally-based concerns. Counselors must have respect and a positive attitude toward cultural and gender differences in order to develop successful rehabilitation programs for people from different cultural backgrounds. Going beyond beliefs and attitudes, it may be hypothesized that counselors need not possess only positive knowledge and attitudes, but appropriate and positive behaviors when interacting with minority persons outside the counseling relationship. It should be a goal of Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs to impart skills and abilities necessary to work effectively with these culturally distinct populations.

The Politics of Disability and Ethnicity

Although disability is dealt with in unique ways in different ethnic communities, persons with disabilities share common experiences and common goals in what is now referred to as "disability culture." Economic and financial disenfranchisement and a shared social identity cross age, sex, ethnic, and disability lines (Waxman, 1990). A 1986 Harris Poll reported that 74 percent of people with disabilities have at least "some" sense of commonality with other persons who have disabilities.

The socio-political approach, views disability as a product of interaction between the individual and the environment. Disability limitations are seen as located in the surroundings people encounter rather than within individuals. The limitations people with disabilities have are not the physical, mental, or emotional disabilities, but the social and psychological reactions of the surrounding society and the socio-political structure of that society. A disabling environment is seen as causing functional limitations, such as the myriad of architectural barriers encountered by people using wheelchairs for mobility. To change this, one must change public policy (Fine & Asch, 1988; Hahn, 1988).

In addition to the discrimination that persons with disabilities face, ethnic minority individuals face discrimination based on disability and ethnicity, what we refer to as "double discrimination." Ethnic minority women with disabilities may actually face a third kind of discrimination based on gender.

Gender Issues and Disability

Danek (1992), in an article on the status of women with disabilities, discussed the "feminization" of poverty. Women with or without disabilities, who are divorced and female heads of households with young children are essentially vulnerable to poverty. Ten percent of all females in our society currently live in poverty. This number increases to 31 percent for households headed by a female, and 57 percent for households headed by a female with young children (under the age of 5). Older women comprise 72 percent of the aged poor. In a study of divorced couples, McGoldrick (1988) found that it is the woman who most likely will move down to the poverty level. Women in this situation average about 17 percent. Seventy-five percent of men's income rises at an average of 17 percent. Seventy-five percent of the poor are women and children, mainly living in one-parent households.

Danek (1992) referred to "double discrimination" faced by women with disabilities. Women with disabilities have a 33 percent participation rate in the labor forces compared to a 69 percent participation rate by men with disabilities. Women who have disabilities receive substantially less pay and are restricted to a narrower range of occupations. Five recommendations are set forth by Danek to assist counselors in empowering women with disabilities:

1. Counter deficit thinking. Focus on what is present in a person, not on the limitation.
2. Teach self-management skills, including personal control and self-efficacy.
3. Emphasize individual choice when deciding on vocational goals. Look at productive and meaningful goals.
4. Develop strategies to overcome social isolation, such as women's support groups.
5. Focus on system change strategies, such as changing negative societal attitudes and beliefs toward women, as well as toward persons with disabilities.

Fowler, O'Rourke, Wadsworth, and Harper (1992) encouraged rehabilitation counselors to explore their own personal beliefs and values toward women in general and women who have disabilities. Many individuals still have the perception that women should be passive, emotional, and submissive. This attitude places unrealistic behavioral expectancies on personal and professional relationships as well as on the expectancies of rehabilitation outcomes. These authors remind us to be aware of personal, institutional, and societal stereotypes which lead to discrimination against persons with disabilities. In the area of gender bias, the social role of the woman as "caretaker" may lead to stereotypical perceptions which focus ability with expected roles.

Rehabilitation counselors need to assess the myths, stereotypes, and attitudes society has toward women. The multiple minority status of women who have disabilities is compounded by discrimination in employment (Asch & Fine, 1985). "Women are clustered in the lower paying and lower status jobs partly because the majority of those who hire the workforce (men) view in more traditional terms" (Cottone & Cottone, 1992, p.22).

Current Status of Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs

In reviewing rehabilitation counselor education programs for the past several years, the author of this article has noticed that one of the major deficiencies of programs has been in the area of "multicultural and gender issues." Persons from minority groups, women, and persons with disabilities will constitute an increasing proportion of the labor force in the future. It has been projected that a large percentage of that population will be ethnic persons from minority groups and women (Alexson, 1993; Johnston & Packer, 1987).

Watson (1988), in a survey of rehabilitation education professionals that were members of the National Council on Rehabilitation Education (NCRE), determined that most respondents reported that cross-cultural classes are "very important" or at least "somewhat important" in Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs. Opponents of cross-cultural counseling contended that the traditional counseling theories and methods we use are appropriate and effective with all cultures and that no specialized techniques are needed. Supporters of cross-cultural counseling, however, believe that both coursework and actual experiences are necessary because the majority of counselors are "culturally encapsulated;" they are insensitive because they know very little about cultures other than their own. Gollnick and Chinn (1990) stressed the importance of understanding the cultural background and experiences of other people in their various cultures' own terms. Misunderstanding often occurs because a person from one cultural group is ignorant about the culture of a person from a different cultural group.

In a study of the value of using a multicultural counseling approach, Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1989) noted the importance of sensitizing counselors, both minority and non-minority counselors, to the life experiences of culturally distinct populations. There has been a great deal of criticism of the traditional counseling roles when applied to underrepresented groups. Cultural differences between counselor and consumer can result in significant barriers that, in some cases, are insurmountable. A counselor's cultural sensitivity can help overcome some of the differences. Misunderstanding frequently occurs between a counselor and consumer because of ignorance of the culture of another's group.

According to Atkinson, Morten & Sue (1989), there has been general minority group unhappiness with counseling, including disenchantment with unfulfilled promises and a reported inability of counselors to serve the special needs of minority consumers. Rehabilitation counseling educators need increased awareness of this in order to train future counselors to be knowledgeable, sensitive, and capable with a multicultural population.

Conclusion

It is recommended that Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs increase their content areas in multicultural and gender issues. One method is to develop a specific course in sociological perspectives of counseling. A more comprehensive approach is for Rehabilitation Counselor Education Programs to include these sociological and cultural perspectives throughout their coursework, practice and fieldwork experiences, wherever pertinent, in order to prepare counselors to work in our culturally and ethnically diverse society.

References

Asch, A., & Fine, M. (1985). Disabled women: Sexism without the pedestal. In M.J. Deegan & N.A. Brooks (Eds.), Women and disability: The double handicap. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

Atkinson, D.R., Morten, G., & Sue, D.W. (1989). Counseling American minorities: A cross-cultural perspective (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown

Axelson, J.A. (1993). Counseling and development in a multicultural society (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Cottone, L.P. & Cotone, R.R. (1992). Women with disabilities: The paradox of empowerment and the need for a trans-systemic and feminist perspective. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(4), 20-25.

Danek, M.M. (1992). The status of women with disabilities revisited. zJournal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(4), 7-13.

Fine, M., & Asch, A. (1988). Disability beyond stigma: Social interaction, discrimination, and activism. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 3-21.

Fowler, C., O'Rourke, B., Wadsworth, J., & Harper, D. 91992). Disability and feminism: Model for counselor exploration of personal values and beliefs.

Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(4), 14-19.

Gollick, D.M., & Chinn, P.C. (1990). Multicultural education in a pluralistic society (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Hahn, H. (1988). The politics of physical differences: Disability and discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 39-47.

Johnston, W.B., & Packer, A.H. (1987). Workforce 2000: Work and workers for the twenty-first century. Indianapolis, IN:Hudson Institute.

McGoldrick, M. (1988). Women and the family cycle. In B. Carter & M. McGoldrick (Eds.), The changing family life cycle: A framework for family therapy (2nd ed.) (pp. 29-68). New York, NY: Gardner.

Watson, A.L. (1988). Importance of cross-cultural counseling in rehabilitation counseling curricula. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling. 19(4), 55-61.

Waxman, B.F. (1990). Changing stereotypes and myths about disability and ethnicity: . Breaking down attitudinal barriers to employment. In S. Walker & C.A. Asbury . (Eds.), Partnerships and Linkages for success: Enhancing the employment of persons with disabilities. report of the 1989 Los Angeles Regional Conference (pp. 26-28) Sacramento, CA: The California Governor's Committee for Employment of Disabled Persons and the Employment Development Department, State of California.

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